Progress in Preparation and Research of Marine Antifouling Hydrogel Coatings

WANG Jianyang; LI Xiangyu; WANG Fuhui; XU Dake

doi:10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2026.06.011

PDF(8180 KB)

Surface Technology ›› 2026, Vol. 55 ›› Issue (6) : 137-157. DOI: 10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2026.06.011

Functional Surfaces and Technology

Progress in Preparation and Research of Marine Antifouling Hydrogel Coatings

WANG Jianyang, LI Xiangyu^*, WANG Fuhui, XU Dake

Author information +

History +

Abstract

Marine biofouling poses a severe global challenge by increasing fuel consumption and accelerating infrastructure corrosion, thereby raising operational costs, while also threatening marine ecosystems. The maritime industry's shift from toxic, biocide-releasing coatings towards environmentally benign solutions has highlighted the limitations of current foul-release technologies, such as their dependency on water flow and poor static performance. In this context, hydrogel coatings have emerged as a highly promising platform. Their inherent superhydrophilicity facilitates the formation of a stable bound hydration layer at the interface, which acts as a physical barrier to the initial adsorption of organic molecules and the subsequent attachment of fouling organisms.
This review systematically examines the development of hydrogel-based antifouling coatings, from addressing fundamental material weaknesses to integrating advanced smart functionalities. The practical application of hydrogels in marine environments is initially hindered by their typically weak mechanical properties and poor substrate adhesion. It also details innovative network design strategies to overcome these hurdles. This includes leveraging dynamic non-covalent cross-linking (e.g., hydrogen bonds, metal-coordination) for self-healing and stimuli-responsiveness, combined with covalent cross-linking for structural robustness. Advanced architectures like interpenetrating double/triple networks and microphase-separated heterogeneous hydrogels are discussed for achieving exceptional toughness and fatigue resistance, mimicking natural composites.
Beyond passive fouling resistance, strategies for active performance enhancement are analyzed. This encompasses the selection of high-hydration matrices (e.g., zwitterionic polymers) and their synergy with low-surface-energy components. A significant focus is placed on the hydrogel's role as a controlled-release reservoir for eco-friendly antifoulants or as a host for catalytic nanomaterials, such as cerium oxide, which provides a potent, non-toxic antibacterial action through reactive oxygen species generation.
The integration of smart and adaptive features represents the research frontier. It covers stimuli-responsive hydrogels that react to biofouling-relevant triggers like pH, salinity, or light, thereby enabling on-demand antifouling action. Equally critical is the development of self-healing capabilities, through dynamic covalent or supramolecular chemistry, which ensures long-term durability and functional recovery from physical damage.
Despite considerable progress, key challenges remain for real-world translation, including ensuring long-term stability under hydrodynamic shear and UV exposure, developing scalable coating processes for large structures, and validating performance through standardized field trials. Future efforts must focus on multifunctional design, scalable manufacturing, and rigorous real-sea testing to bridge the gap between laboratory innovation and practical marine application, paving the way for a new generation of intelligent and sustainable antifouling solutions.

Key words

hydrogel / marine antifouling / green / long-term / intelligent response / self-healing

Cite this article

EndNote

Ris (Procite)

Bibtex

Download Citations

WANG Jianyang, LI Xiangyu, WANG Fuhui, XU Dake. Progress in Preparation and Research of Marine Antifouling Hydrogel Coatings[J]. Surface Technology. 2026, 55(6): 137-157

References

[1] GU Y Q, YU L Z, MOU J G, et al.Research Strategies to Develop Environmentally Friendly Marine Antifouling Coatings[J]. Marine Drugs, 2020, 18(7): 371.
[2] 贺小燕. 海洋生物污损条件膜和生物膜的形成及调控机制研究[D]. 宁波: 中国科学院大学(中国科学院宁波材料技术与工程研究所), 2017.
HE X Y.Study on the Formation and Regulation Mechanism of Membrane and Biofilm under the Condition of Marine Biological Fouling[D]. Ningbo: Ningbo Institute of Material Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2017.
[3] QIU Q F, GU Y Q, REN Y, et al.Research Progress on Eco-Friendly Natural Antifouling Agents and Their Antifouling Mechanisms[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2024, 495: 153638.
[4] LIU D, SHU H B, ZHOU J W, et al.Research Progress on New Environmentally Friendly Antifouling Coatings in Marine Settings: A Review[J]. Biomimetics, 2023, 8(2): 200.
[5] LIU M Y, LI S N, WANG H, et al.Research Progress of Environmentally Friendly Marine Antifouling Coatings[J]. Polymer Chemistry, 2021, 12(26): 3702-3720.
[6] FENG Y, CHEN Z H, CUI Y Y, et al.Composite Coatings Based on Silicone-Modified Polyurethane and Marine Natural Product Chlorogentisyl Alcohol for Marine Antifouling[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2025, 198: 108906.
[7] JIN H C, TIAN L M, BING W, et al.Bioinspired Marine Antifouling Coatings: Status, Prospects, and Future[J]. Progress in Materials Science, 2022, 124: 100889.
[8] MA L, LEI X Y, XU Q, et al.Multi-Strategy Synergetic Coating Based on Natural Product Resveratrol for Marine Antifouling[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2025, 205: 109306.
[9] MEDHI R, HANDLIN A D, LEONARDI A K, et al.Interrupting Marine Fouling with Active Buffered Coatings[J]. Biofouling. 2024, 40(7): 377-389.
[10] CHEN J Y, WANG Z, LI S N, et al.Poly(N-Isopropylacrylamide) Self-Fabricated Coating for Marine Anti-Biofouling[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2025: e25696.
[11] WAKE H, TAKAHASHI H, TAKIMOTO T, et al.Development of an Electrochemical Antifouling System for Seawater Cooling Pipelines of Power Plants Using Titanium[J]. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 2006, 95(3): 468-473.
[12] LIU C L, RUAN Z L, XIE J Y, et al.Dynamic Environmental Niches of Marine Invasive Species over 200 Years[J]. Ecology Letters, 2025, 28(6): e70164.
[13] LIU C L, BELLARD C, JESCHKE J M.Understanding Biological Invasions through the Lens of Environmental Niches[J]. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2025, 40(4): 385-394.
[14] LIU Z, JIANG T J, QIN W.Polymeric Membrane Marine Sensors with a Regenerable Antibiofouling Coating Based on Surface Modification of a Dual-Functionalized Magnetic Composite[J]. Analytical Chemistry, 2022, 94(34): 11916-11924.
[15] QI L B, LIANG R N, JIANG T J, et al.Anti-Fouling Polymeric Membrane Ion-Selective Electrodes[J]. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2022, 150: 116572.
[16] 叶章基, 陈珊珊, 马春风, 等. 新型环保海洋防污材料研究进展[J]. 表面技术, 2017, 46(12): 62-70.
YE Z J, CHEN S S, MA C F, et al.Development of Novel Environment-Friendly Antifouling Materials[J]. Surface Technology, 2017, 46(12): 62-70.
[17] DUAN Y Y, WU J, QIAO A H, et al.Transparent Zwitterionic Cellulose Nanofibers-Based Coatings for Marine Antifouling[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2025, 203: 109172.
[18] DONG M, LIU L J, WANG D Z, et al.Synthesis and Properties of Self-Polishing Antifouling Coatings Based on BIT-Acrylate Resins[J]. Coatings, 2022, 12(7): 891.
[19] CHIOVATTO A C L, DE GODOI A V O, ZANARDI- LAMARDO E, et al. Effects of Substances Released from a Coal Tar-Based Coating Used to Protect Harbor Structures on Oysters[J]. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2021, 166: 112221.
[20] HAO R N, LI T C, ZHOU X, et al.Strategies and Challenges in Marine Antifouling Coatings: Current Innovations and Future Outlook[J]. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 2026, 23(1): 77-101.
[21] NIU J Y, LI Y M, SHEN Y, et al.Hydrogel-Anchored Caffeic Acid-Copper Ions Coating: Integrated Defensive and Offensive Strategy for Synergistic Antifouling[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 515: 163766.
[22] TONG Z M, GAO F, CHEN S F, et al.Slippery Porous-Liquid-Infused Porous Surface (SPIPS) with On-Demand Responsive Switching between "Defensive" and "Offensive" Antifouling Modes[J]. Advanced Materials, 2024, 36(9): 2308972.
[23] CHEN K L, ZHOU S X, WU L M.Self-Healing Underwater Superoleophobic and Antibiofouling Coatings Based on the Assembly of Hierarchical Microgel Spheres[J]. ACS Nano, 2016, 10(1): 1386-1394.
[24] SONG F, ZHANG L L, CHEN R R, et al.Bioinspired Durable Antibacterial and Antifouling Coatings Based on Borneol Fluorinated Polymers: Demonstrating Direct Evidence of Antiadhesion[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2021, 13(28): 33417-33426.
[25] WU T, QI Y H, CHEN Q A, et al.Preparation and Properties of Fluorosilicone Fouling-Release Coatings[J]. Polymers, 2022, 14(18): 3804.
[26] COOK A D, SAGERS R D, PITT W G.Bacterial Adhesion to Poly(HEMA)-Based Hydrogels[J]. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, 1993, 27(1): 119-126.
[27] ZHU J, LI F X, WANG X L, et al.Hyaluronic Acid and Polyethylene Glycol Hybrid Hydrogel Encapsulating Nanogel with Hemostasis and Sustainable Antibacterial Property for Wound Healing[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2018, 10(16): 13304-13316.
[28] HONG F, XIE L Y, HE C X, et al.Novel Hybrid Anti- Biofouling Coatings with a Self-Peeling and Self-Generated Micro-Structured Soft and Dynamic Surface[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 2013, 1(15): 2048-2055.
[29] SUN J Y, ZHAO X H, ILLEPERUMA W R K, et al. Highly Stretchable and Tough Hydrogels[J]. Nature, 2012, 489(7414): 133-136.
[30] ZHANG M, YANG J X, ZHANG J Y, et al.Strontium- Loaded Chitosan/Wood Hydrogel with Anisotropic Cellular Architecture for Enhanced Critical Bone Regeneration[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2025, 17(36): 50302-50316.
[31] SANTOSH KUMAR B Y, ISLOOR A M, MOHAN KUMAR G C, et al. Nanohydroxyapatite Reinforced Chitosan Composite Hydrogel with Tunable Mechanical and Biological Properties for Cartilage Regeneration[J]. Scientific Reports, 2019, 9: 15957.
[32] LIU J, SHI Y, LI B, et al.PVA/PAAm Hydrogel-on- Titanium Alloy with High Bonding Strength and Low Friction as Articular Cartilage Replacement[J]. Journal of Polymer Research, 2024, 31(8): 238.
[33] ZHANG Z M, YANG J W, WANG H Y, et al. A 10-Micrometer-Thick Nanomesh-Reinforced Gas- Permeable Hydrogel Skin Sensor for Long-Term Electrophysiological Monitoring[J]. Science Advances, 2024, 10(2): eadj5389.
[34] LI L, ZHANG Y, LU H Y, et al.Cryopolymerization Enables Anisotropic Polyaniline Hybrid Hydrogels with Superelasticity and Highly Deformation-Tolerant Electrochemical Energy Storage[J]. Nature Communications, 2020, 11: 62.
[35] LI L W, ZHANG L S, GUO W B, et al.High-Performance Dual-Ion Zn Batteries Enabled by a Polyzwitterionic Hydrogel Electrolyte with Regulated Anion/Cation Transport and Suppressed Zn Dendrite Growth[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2021, 9(43): 24325-24335.
[36] HE G L, LIU W Y, LIU Y H, et al.Antifouling Hydrogel with Different Mechanisms: Antifouling Mechanisms, Materials, Preparations and Applications[J]. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2025, 335: 103359.
[37] SEBRI N J M, ABDUL LATIP A F, ADNAN R, et al. Enhancement of Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Using Delaminated Layered Double Hydroxide for the Formulation of Mechanically Strong Nanocomposite Hydrogel[J]. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2020, 137(18): 48637.
[38] ZOU M J, ZENG Y X, WANG X W, et al.Preparation of Nanocomposite Hydrogels Based on Zwitterionic Polymer Functionalized MXene Nanosheets for Antifouling Application[J]. Carbon, 2025, 243: 120590.
[39] JOVANOVIĆ Ž, KRKLJEŠ A, STOJKOVSKA J, et al.Synthesis and Characterization of Silver/Poly(N-Vinyl- 2-Pyrrolidone) Hydrogel Nanocomposite Obtained by in Situ Radiolytic Method[J]. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 2011, 80(11): 1208-1215.
[40] HELLIO C, DE LA BROISE D, DUFOSSÉ L, et al. Inhibition of Marine Bacteria by Extracts of Macroalgae: Potential Use for Environmentally Friendly Antifouling Paints[J]. Marine Environmental Research, 2001, 52(3): 231-247.
[41] WANG L, YANG K, LI X Z, et al.A Double-Crosslinked Self-Healing Antibacterial Hydrogel with Enhanced Mechanical Performance for Wound Treatment[J]. Acta Biomaterialia, 2021, 124: 139-152.
[42] WANG K, ZHANG X, LI C, et al.Chemically Crosslinked Hydrogel Film Leads to Integrated Flexible Supercapacitors with Superior Performance[J]. Advanced Materials, 2015, 27(45): 7451-7457.
[43] BAI X, LÜ S Y, CAO Z, et al.Self-Reinforcing Injectable Hydrogel with both High Water Content and Mechanical Strength for Bone Repair[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2016, 288: 546-556.
[44] ZHOU S M, QI N, ZHANG Z H, et al.Recent Progress in Intrinsic Self-Healing Polymer Materials: Mechanisms, Challenges and Potential Applications in Oil and Gas Development[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 511: 161906.
[45] DENG Z, WANG Y, GAO Y H, et al.Antifouling Agent “Smart Switch”: 3D-Printed Antifouling Functional Tablets Based on Tesla Valve Structures[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2025, 516: 163991.
[46] YE X, LI X, SHEN Y Q, et al.Self-Healing pH-Sensitive Cytosine- and Guanosine-Modified Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogels via Hydrogen Bonding[J]. Polymer, 2017, 108: 348-360.
[47] ZANG D M, YI H, GU Z D, et al.Interfacial Engineering of Hierarchically Porous NiTi/Hydrogels Nanocomposites with Exceptional Antibiofouling Surfaces[J]. Advanced Materials, 2017, 29(2): 1602869.
[48] WANG J Y, LI X Y, YU Z Q, et al.Supramolecular- Assisted Nanocomposite Coatings with Sustainable and Robust Resistance to Microbially Mediated Biofouling and Corrosion[J]. Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 2025, 205: 286-298.
[49] POTAUFEUX J E, ODENT J, NOTTA-CUVIER D, et al.A Comprehensive Review of the Structures and Properties of Ionic Polymeric Materials[J]. Polymer Chemistry, 2020, 11(37): 5914-5936.
[50] HUANG S C, XIA X X, FAN R X, et al.Programmable Electrostatic Interactions Expand the Landscape of Dynamic Functional Hydrogels[J]. Chemistry of Materials, 2020, 32(5): 1937-1945.
[51] QIN S G, NIU Y M, ZHANG Y H, et al.Metal Ion-Containing Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications in Bone Tissue Engineering[J]. Biomacromolecules, 2024, 25(6): 3217-3248.
[52] YU Z Q, LI X Y, LI X H, et al.Nacre-Inspired Metal-Organic Framework Coatings Reinforced by Multiscale Hierarchical Cross-Linking for Integrated Antifouling and Anti-Microbial Corrosion[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2023, 33(47): 2305995.
[53] XIE A, ZHANG J Y, WANG X G, et al.Dynamic Covalent Oleogel with Mechanical Force-Induced Reversible Phase Transition for Self-Adaptive Lubrication[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2025, 35(25): 2501417.
[54] KĘDZIERSKA M, JAMROŻY M, DRABCZYK A, et al. Analysis of the Influence of both the Average Molecular Weight and the Content of Crosslinking Agent on Physicochemical Properties of PVP-Based Hydrogels Developed as Innovative Dressings[J]. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2022, 23(19): 11618.
[55] ZHAO L, REN Z J, LIU X, et al.A Multifunctional, Self-Healing, Self-Adhesive, and Conductive Sodium Alginate/Poly(vinyl alcohol) Composite Hydrogel as a Flexible Strain Sensor[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2021, 13(9): 11344-11355.
[56] ZHU J J, GUAN S, HU Q Q, et al.Tough and pH-Sensitive Hydroxypropyl Guar Gum/Polyacrylamide Hybrid Double-Network Hydrogel[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2016, 306: 953-960.
[57] JIANG D Y, LIU Z X, HAN J, et al.A Tough Nanocomposite Hydrogel for Antifouling Application with Quaternized Hyperbranched PEI Nanoparticles Crosslinking[J]. RSC Advances, 2016, 6(65): 60530-60536.
[58] HAN G Y, PARK J Y, BACK J H, et al.Highly Resilient Noncovalently Associated Hydrogel Adhesives for Wound Sealing Patch[J]. Advanced Healthcare Materials, 2024, 13(12): e2303342.
[59] YANG J, LI K, TANG C, et al.Recent Progress in Double Network Elastomers: One Plus One Is Greater than Two[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2022, 32(19): 2110244.
[60] ALDANA A A, HOUBEN S, MORONI L, et al.Trends in Double Networks as Bioprintable and Injectable Hydrogel Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration[J]. ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering, 2021, 7(9): 4077-4101.
[61] YUK H, ZHANG T, LIN S T, et al.Tough Bonding of Hydrogels to Diverse Non-Porous Surfaces[J]. Nature Materials, 2016, 15(2): 190-196.
[62] WANG L, LI W, CAO L, et al.Mesoporous Silica Reinforced Triple-Network Poly-Zwitterionic Hydrogel with High-Strength and Excellent Anti-Fouling Performance[J]. Composites Science and Technology, 2025, 271: 111355.
[63] LI X H, TANG C J, LIU D, et al.High-Strength and Nonfouling Zwitterionic Triple-Network Hydrogel in Saline Environments[J]. Advanced Materials, 2021, 33(39): 2102479.
[64] BAUMGARTNER M, HARTMANN F, DRACK M, et al.Resilient yet Entirely Degradable Gelatin-Based Biogels for Soft Robots and Electronics[J]. Nature Materials, 2020, 19(10): 1102-1109.
[65] KIM J, ZHANG G G, SHI M, et al.Fracture, Fatigue, and Friction of Polymers in which Entanglements Greatly Outnumber Cross-Links[J]. Science, 2021, 374(6564): 212-216.
[66] STAUFFER S R, PEPPAST N A.Poly(vinyl alcohol) Hydrogels Prepared by Freezing-Thawing Cyclic Processing[J]. Polymer, 1992, 33(18): 3932-3936.
[67] ZHANG G G, KIM J, HASSAN S, et al.Self-Assembled Nanocomposites of High Water Content and Load- Bearing Capacity[J]. PNAS, 2022, 119(32): e2203962119.
[68] ZHANG G G, STECK J, KIM J, et al. Hydrogels of Arrested Phase Separation Simultaneously Achieve High Strength and Low Hysteresis[J]. Science Advances, 2023, 9(26): eadh7742.
[69] KANNUS P.Structure of the Tendon Connective Tissue[J]. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 2000, 10(6): 312-320.
[70] MAGANARIS C N, PAUL J P.Hysteresis Measurements in Intact Human Tendon[J]. Journal of Biomechanics, 2000, 33(12): 1723-1727.
[71] KING D R.Macroscale Double Networks: Highly Dissipative Soft Composites[J]. Polymer Journal, 2022, 54(8): 943-955.
[72] LIAO I C, MOUTOS F T, ESTES B T, et al.Composite Three-Dimensional Woven Scaffolds with Interpenetrating Network Hydrogels to Create Functional Synthetic Articular Cartilage[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2013, 23(47): 5833-5839.
[73] ILLEPERUMA W R K, SUN J Y, SUO Z G, et al. Fiber-Reinforced Tough Hydrogels[J]. Extreme Mechanics Letters, 2014, 1: 90-96.
[74] MO C Y, LONG H Y, RANEY J R.Tough, Aorta-Inspired Soft Composites[J]. PNAS, 2022, 119(28): e2123497119.
[75] KING D R, SUN T L, HUANG Y W, et al.Extremely Tough Composites from Fabric Reinforced Polyampholyte Hydrogels[J]. Materials Horizons, 2015, 2(6): 584-591.
[76] LIN S T, CAO C Y, WANG Q M, et al.Design of Stiff, Tough and Stretchy Hydrogel Composites via Nanoscale Hybrid Crosslinking and Macroscale Fiber Reinforcement[J]. Soft Matter, 2014, 10(38): 7519-7527.
[77] YANG H, JI M K, YANG M, et al.Fabricating Hydrogels to Mimic Biological Tissues of Complex Shapes and High Fatigue Resistance[J]. Matter, 2021, 4(6): 1935-1946.
[78] LIU X, WU J P, QIAO K K, et al.Topoarchitected Polymer Networks Expand the Space of Material Properties[J]. Nature Communications, 2022, 13: 1622.
[79] ZHAO Z G, LIU Y X, ZHANG K J, et al.Biphasic Synergistic Gel Materials with Switchable Mechanics and Self-Healing Capacity[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2017, 56(43): 13464-13469.
[80] WAN X Z, JIA L X, LIU X, et al.WET-Induced Layered Organohydrogel as Bioinspired “Sticky-Slippy Skin” for Robust Underwater Oil-Repellency[J]. Advanced Materials, 2022, 34(16): 2110408.
[81] CHEN T L, LIN Y P, CHIEN C H, et al.Fabrication of Frog-Skin-Inspired Slippery Antibiofouling Coatings through Degradable Block Copolymer Wrinkling (Adv. Funct. Mater. 42/2021)[J]. Advanced Functional Materials, 2021, 31(42): 2170309.
[82] GATENHOLM P, HOLMSTRÖM C, MAKI J S, et al. Toward Biological Antifouling Surface Coatings: Marine Bacteria Immobilized in Hydrogel Inhibit Barnacle Larvae[J]. Biofouling, 1995, 8(4): 293-301.
[83] ZHANG W, WANG R X, SUN Z M, et al.Catechol- Functionalized Hydrogels: Biomimetic Design, Adhesion Mechanism, and Biomedical Applications[J]. Chemical Society Reviews, 2020, 49(2): 433-464.
[84] BAIER R E.Surface Behaviour of Biomaterials: The Theta Surface for Biocompatibility[J]. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine, 2006, 17(11): 1057-1062.
[85] CHAMBERS L D, STOKES K R, WALSH F C, et al.Modern Approaches to Marine Antifouling Coatings[J]. Surface and Coatings Technology, 2006, 201(6): 3642-3652.
[86] VANYSACKER L, BOERJAN B, DECLERCK P, et al.Biofouling Ecology as a Means to Better Understand Membrane Biofouling[J]. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2014, 98(19): 8047-8072.
[87] ZHARNIKOV M.From “Stars” to Nano: Porous Poly(ethylene glycol) Hydrogel Films and Nanosheets as a Versatile Platform for Sensing and Nanofabrication[J]. Nano Research, 2024, 17(11): 10069-10082.
[88] IQBAL Y, AMIN F, AZIZ M H, et al.Flexible Sodium Alginate-Gelatin Hydrogel Membrane Incorporated with Green Synthesized Bimetallic ZnO: CeO₂ Nanocomposite for Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Biocompatibility Studies[J]. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 2025, 212: 106228.
[89] LUNDBERG P, BRUIN A, KLIJNSTRA J W, et al.Poly(ethylene glycol)-Based Thiol-Ene Hydrogel Coatings- Curing Chemistry, Aqueous Stability, and Potential Marine Antifouling Applications[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2010, 2(3): 903-912.
[90] DONG L, HE G L, DAI S S, et al.Hydrogel Antifouling Coating with Highly Adhesive Ability via Lipophilic Monomer[J]. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 2022, 307(4): 2100812.
[91] WANG B W, WANG P, HE B L, et al.Zwitterionic Polymer Brush-Functionalized Dual-Crosslinked Hydrogel via Subsurface-Initiated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization for Anti-Fouling Applications[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2023, 183: 107729.
[92] ZHANG P P, LIANG H X, DU Y W, et al.Superhydrated Zwitterionic Hydrogel with Dedicated Water Channels Enables Nonfouling Solar Desalination[J]. Nano-Micro Letters, 2025, 18(1): 87.
[93] ZHU Y Q, SUN J W, WANG Q F, et al.Eco-Friendly Covalently Connected Silicone Hydrogel with Negatively Charged Surface for Marine Anti-Biofouling[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2024, 197: 108833.
[94] ZHANG C, QI Y H, GUO Y R, et al.Anti-Marine Biofouling Adhesion Performance and Mechanism of PDMS Fouling-Release Coating Containing PS-PEG Hydrogel[J]. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2023, 194: 115345.
[95] GIRI T K, BHOWMICK S, MAITY S.Entrapment of Capsaicin Loaded Nanoliposome in pH Responsive Hydrogel Beads for Colonic Delivery[J]. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 2017, 39: 417-422.
[96] HE G L, LIU Y H, LIU W Y, et al.A Highly Antifouling and Eco-Friendly Hydrogel Coating Based on Capsaicin Derivative -Functionalized Polymer[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2023, 429: 139538.
[97] YANG Z M, REN X H, LIU Y.N-Halamine Modified Ceria Nanoparticles: Antibacterial Response and Accelerated Wound Healing Application via a 3D Printed Scaffold[J]. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2021, 227: 109390.
[98] MAO T Y, LU G, XU C Y, et al.Preparation and Properties of Polyvinylpyrrolidone-Cuprous Oxide Microcapsule Antifouling Coating[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2020, 141: 105317.
[99] SADIDI H, HOOSHMAND S, AHMADABADI A, et al.Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles (Nanoceria): Hopes in Soft Tissue Engineering[J]. Molecules, 2020, 25(19): 4559.
[100] XIONG Y K, FANG Z Q, HU D X, et al.Nano-CeO(2)-Loaded Polyzwitterionic Double-Network High-Strength Hydrogel for Highly Enhanced Synergistic Marine Antifouling[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2023, 15(32): 38795-38807.
[101] WANG Y X, ZHANG M Y, YAN Z Z, et al.Metal Nanoparticle Hybrid Hydrogels: The State-of-the-Art of Combining Hard and Soft Materials to Promote Wound Healing[J]. Theranostics, 2024, 14(4): 1534-1560.
[102] LAN X, DU T, ZHUO J C, et al.Advances of Biomacromolecule-Based Antibacterial Hydrogels and Their Performance Evaluation for Wound Healing: A Review[J]. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 2024, 279: 135577.
[103] ZHANG D, FU Y H, HUANG L, et al.Integration of Antifouling and Antibacterial Properties in Salt-Responsive Hydrogels with Surface Regeneration Capacity[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 2018, 6(6): 950-960.
[104] DAI T J, WANG C P, WANG Y Q, et al.A Nanocomposite Hydrogel with Potent and Broad-Spectrum Antibacterial Activity[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2018, 10(17): 15163-15173.
[105] YANG N, ZHU M, XU G C, et al.A Near-Infrared Light- Responsive Multifunctional Nanocomposite Hydrogel for Efficient and Synergistic Antibacterial Wound Therapy and Healing Promotion[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 2020, 8(17): 3908-3917.
[106] BANERJEE S, BHATTACHARYA K, SAMANTA S, et al.Self-Healable Antifouling Zwitterionic Hydrogel Based on Synergistic Phototriggered Dynamic Disulfide Metathesis Reaction and Ionic Interaction[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2018, 10(32): 27391-27406.
[107] XIONG Y K, FANG Z Q, TANG P P, et al.MXene and Cellulose Nanofibers Reinforced Hydrogel with High Strength and Photothermal Self-Healing Performances for Marine Antifouling[J]. Carbohydrate Polymers, 2025, 348: 122879.

Funding

Young Scientists Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Category A) (52425112); National Natural Science Foundation of China (52571069); Young Scientists Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Category C) (52301081)