Research Progress in Key Interfacial Reliability Issues and Modification Strategies for Sn-Bi Based Solders

SHANG Min; MA Haitao; MA Haoran; WANG Jiajun; WANG Yunpeng

doi:10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2026.03.017

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Surface Technology ›› 2026, Vol. 55 ›› Issue (3) : 219-243. DOI: 10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2026.03.017

Surface and Interface Strengthening Technology

Research Progress in Key Interfacial Reliability Issues and Modification Strategies for Sn-Bi Based Solders

SHANG Min^a, MA Haitao^a,*, MA Haoran^b, WANG Jiajun^a, WANG Yunpeng^a

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Abstract

The intrinsic brittleness and interfacial instability of Sn-Bi based solder joints, particularly under thermo- mechanical and electrical stresses, present a critical bottleneck for their broader application in next-generation electronics. While the correlation between interfacial phenomena, such as runaway intermetallic compound (IMC) growth, Bi phase segregation, and Kirkendall voiding, and joint failures is well-established, a systematic, multi-scale framework for mitigating these degradation pathways remains elusive. This review moves beyond a mere compilation of existing data to provide a critical synthesis and forward-looking analysis of modification strategies, uniquely structuring them into a hierarchical framework encompassing (1) bulk solder alloy design, (2) advanced substrate/interface engineering, and (3) synergistic system-level integration. The central thesis posits that achieving transformative reliability gains necessitates a holistic approach that simultaneously optimizes the thermodynamic and kinetic stability of the entire solder/interface/substrate system.
The analysis begins with a deep dive into the mechanistic role of micro-alloying additions, categorizing them not merely by element but by their primary function in mitigating specific failure modes. For instance, while Ag additions (optimally 0.3wt.%-0.4wt.%) are shown to refine microstructure via dispersed Ag₃Sn precipitates, the existing controversy regarding their limited efficacy in suppressing Cu-Sn IMC growth is critically highlighted compared with other elements. Conversely, the review elucidates how In additions (<1.5wt.%) fundamentally alter the interfacial thermodynamics by promoting the formation of Cu₆(Sn,In)₅, which directly combats the primary failure mechanism of brittle Bi phase segregation at the solder/IMC interface. The review further dissects the dual-edged nature of elements like Zn, which, despite inhibiting the formation of brittle Cu₃Sn, can trigger catastrophic failure through the rapid growth of Cu₅Zn₈ at concentrations exceeding ~1.0 wt.%. The critical role of Co in enhancing electromigration resistance by forming stable (Cu, Co)₆Sn₅ phases, thereby suppressing current-induced Bi migration, is also systematically detailed.
The core innovation of this review lies in its comprehensive treatment of interface engineering through the lens of diffusion barrier technology. It quantitatively frames the fundamental strategy as a deliberate shift in the interfacial reaction pathway from the kinetically facile but unstable Cu-Sn reaction (forming Cu₆Sn₅, ΔG≈-7.4 kJ·mol^-1·atom^-1) to the thermodynamically robust Ni-Sn reaction (forming Ni₃Sn₄, ΔG≈-30 kJ·mol^-1·atom^-1). The efficacy of electroless Ni-P layers is deconstructed into a dual-mechanism model: the amorphous structure eliminates grain boundary diffusion paths, while the in-situ formation of a P-rich Ni₃P layer at the advancing reaction front acts as a secondary, self-healing barrier. Then, it advances the discussion to state-of-the-art composite barriers, such as Ni-W-P, detailing how the incorporation of refractory elements like W introduces a potent solute-drag effect and elevates the layer's crystallization temperature, thereby extending its operational lifetime under harsh thermal conditions. The review also introduces atomically thin 2D materials, exemplified by graphene, as a paradigm- shifting ultimate physical barrier, capable of almost completely arresting atomic interdiffusion.
Finally, it synthesizes these individual strategies into a system-level perspective, demonstrating how synergistic interplay yields performance unattainable by any single modification. A key example analyzed is the combination of Pt nanoparticle- doped Sn-Bi solder with an ENEPIG (Electroless Nickel-Electroless Palladium-Immersion Gold) substrate finish. Here, it reveals the formation of a uniquely stable (Pd,Pt,Ni)Sn₄ interfacial phase, which acts as a far superior diffusion barrier than the conventional Ni₃Sn₄, drastically reducing Ni-P layer consumption and ensuring long-term microstructural integrity.
Looking forward, this review charts a strategic roadmap for future research, advocating for a paradigm shift from empirical trial-and-error to “design-on-demand” interfacial systems. It identifies the development of high-entropy alloy (HEA) and metallic glass (MG) coatings as a critical frontier for creating next-generation, near-perfect diffusion barriers. Furthermore, it proposes the integration of advanced computational tools (e.g., CALPHAD, first-principles calculations) with sophisticated in-situ characterization techniques (e.g., synchrotron radiation, transmission electron microscopy under electrical/thermal loading) to close the loop between predictive modeling and experimental validation of interfacial degradation dynamics. This integrated approach is presented as the essential pathway to engineering ultra-reliable Sn-Bi interconnects for future mission-critical electronic applications.

Key words

Sn-Bi solder / interfacial reliability / intermetallic compound (IMC) / Bi phase segregation / alloying / diffusion barrier layer / nanoreinforcement

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SHANG Min, MA Haitao, MA Haoran, WANG Jiajun, WANG Yunpeng. Research Progress in Key Interfacial Reliability Issues and Modification Strategies for Sn-Bi Based Solders[J]. Surface Technology. 2026, 55(3): 219-243

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