Opportunities and Challenges of 3D Printing for Directional Liquid Transportation

LIU Yanming; CHEN Yang; MA Yali; LIU Weiwei; CHEN Qiang; LEI Baimao

doi:10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2025.21.001

PDF(2011 KB)

Surface Technology ›› 2025, Vol. 54 ›› Issue (21) : 1-22. DOI: 10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2025.21.001

Special Topic—Design and Applications of Hierarchical Surface Structure Exhibiting Superwettability

Opportunities and Challenges of 3D Printing for Directional Liquid Transportation

LIU Yanming^1,2, CHEN Yang³, MA Yali^1,2, LIU Weiwei^1,2,*, CHEN Qiang^4,5, LEI Baimao^4,5

Author information +

History +

Abstract

Directional liquid transport has become a vibrant and strategically relevant research area owing to its broad impact on precision drug delivery, high-efficiency fog harvesting, thermal management and energy conversion, microfluidic manipulation, and environmental remediation. The central objective is to steer liquids in a deterministic fashion by encoding spatial gradients of surface energy and curvature into engineered chemistries and multiscale textures, thereby harnessing capillarity, Laplace-pressure differentials, and controlled wetting hysteresis. Within this landscape, three-dimensional (3D) printing, i.e., additive manufacturing, has emerged as an enabling platform for constructing biomimetic structures and surfaces that support directional liquid motion. Its distinguishing advantages include materials versatility, architectural freedom, seamless multi-material integration, and low structural mass, collectively allowing the realization of liquid-handling architectures that are difficult, if not impossible, to obtain via conventional fabrication. This review first delineates the mechanistic foundations that govern directional transport, encompassing classical Young-Wenzel-Cassie-Baxter descriptions of wetting, capillary pumping in graded channels, chemical and geometric wettability gradients, Janus and asymmetric ridge/groove designs, ratcheted topographies, and bioinspired motifs (e.g., cactus spines, Nepenthes peristomes). Guided by these principles, it analyzes four mainstream 3D-printing modalities, namely material jetting, extrusion-based printing, powder-bed fusion, and photopolymerization, through the lens of directional liquid transport. For each modality, it summarizes the accessible material sets (polymers, elastomers, hydrogels, particle-reinforced composites, metals, and ceramics); attainable resolution, surface finish, and hierarchical fidelity; throughput and scalability; and the capability to encode multi-material or spatially graded properties that strengthen capillary anisotropy. Post-processing routes, such as plasma activation, laser texturing, surface grafting, and vapor-phase functionalization, are also highlighted for refining surface energy and roughness while preserving structural integrity. Despite rapid advances, key bottlenecks remain. Resolution-throughput trade-offs limit routine patterning of sub-micrometer features needed to maximize curvature-driven pressure gradients. The palette of printable chemistries can constrain wetting tunability and chemical durability. In addition, long-term robustness is challenged by fouling, abrasion, and environmental aging. Equally important, performance assessment lacks standardization. Beyond static or advancing/receding contact angles, it argues for a metrics suite that includes initiation threshold, steady-state transport velocity, run-out distance under tilt, flux under humidity or temperature gradients, and cycling stability under contaminants or mechanical insult. These benchmarks can improve comparability across studies and accelerate translation from proof-of-concept demonstrations to robust devices. Looking forward, several directions appear especially promising: (i) multi-material and gradient printing to co-design chemistry and geometry; (ii) architected lattices and capillary metamaterials that amplify Laplace-pressure gradients while maintaining mechanical integrity; (iii) stimuli-responsive and reconfigurable surfaces for on-demand routing and spatiotemporal control; (iv) inverse design and topology optimization informed by phase-field or volume-of-fluid simulations; (v) data-driven surrogates and machine-learning frameworks for rapid exploration of large design spaces; and (vi) hybrid manufacturing that couples additive processes with sub-micron lithography or ultrafast laser texturing. Overall, this review underscores the "material-structure-function" integration paradigm enabled by 3D printing and offers a coherent roadmap for the intelligent, durable, and high-performance fabrication of directional liquid-transport structures and surfaces. The synthesis presented in this work is intended to guide the selection of printing modalities and design strategies for application-specific requirements, and to catalyze cross-disciplinary progress at the interface of surface science, bioinspired design, and advanced manufacturing.

Key words

3D printing / directional liquid transport / bionic functional structures/surfaces / customizability / gradient design

Cite this article

EndNote

Ris (Procite)

Bibtex

Download Citations

LIU Yanming, CHEN Yang, MA Yali, LIU Weiwei, CHEN Qiang, LEI Baimao. Opportunities and Challenges of 3D Printing for Directional Liquid Transportation[J]. Surface Technology. 2025, 54(21): 1-22 https://doi.org/10.16490/j.cnki.issn.1001-3660.2025.21.001

References

[1] GU D D, SHI X Y, POPRAWE R, et al. Material- Structure-Performance Integrated Laser-Metal Additive Manufacturing[J]. Science, 2021, 372(6545): eabg1487.
[2] DEBROY T, WEI H L, ZUBACK J S, et al.Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Components - Process, Structure and Properties[J]. Progress in Materials Science, 2018, 92: 112-224.
[3] SVETLIZKY D, DAS M, ZHENG B L, et al.Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Additive Manufacturing: Physical Characteristics, Defects, Challenges and Applications[J]. Materials Today, 2021, 49: 271-295.
[4] MANABE K, SAIKAWA M, IWAI T, et al.Durable Superhydrophobic Surfaces on 3D-Printed Structures Inspired by Beehive Architecture[J]. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2025, 26(1): 2481824.
[5] DIMARTINO S, GALINDO-RODRIGUEZ G R, SIMON U, et al. Flexible Material Formulations for 3D Printing of Ordered Porous Beds with Applications in Bioprocess Engineering[J]. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 2022, 9(1): 20.
[6] 唐恒, 谢岩松, 孙亚隆, 等. 液体定向自驱动输运结构设计与制造研究进展[J]. 机械工程学报, 2025, 61(3): 376-391.
TANG H, XIE Y S, SUN Y L, et al.Research Progress on Design and Fabrication of Unidirectional Liquid Self- Driven Transport Structure[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2025, 61(3): 376-391.
[7] 王志远, 邢志国, 王海斗, 等. 液滴在固体织构化表面上的润湿行为研究现状[J]. 机械工程学报, 2022, 58(1): 124-144.
WANG Z Y, XING Z G, WANG H D, et al.Research Progress of Droplet Wetting Behavior on Solid Textured Surface[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2022, 58(1): 124-144.
[8] 林彦萍, 王庆成, 吕恕位, 等. 超疏水表面材料在生物医学检测领域研究进展[J]. 表面技术, 2022, 51(10): 113-127.
LIN Y P, WANG Q C, LYU S W, et al.Research Progress on Superhydrophobic Surface Materials in Biology and Medicine Molecule Detection[J]. Surface Technology, 2022, 51(10): 113-127.
[9] 闫德峰, 刘子艾, 潘维浩, 等. 多功能超疏水表面的制造和应用研究现状[J]. 表面技术, 2021, 50(5): 1-19.
YAN D F, LIU Z A, PAN W H, et al.Research Status on the Fabrication and Application of Multifunctional Superhydrophobic Surfaces[J]. Surface Technology, 2021, 50(5): 1-19.
[10] 周冬冬, 纪献兵, 代超, 等. 超亲水-疏水组合竖直表面强化蒸汽冷凝传热[J]. 机械工程学报, 2018, 54(10): 182-187.
ZHOU D D, JI X B, DAI C, et al.Steam Condensation Heat Transfer Enhancement on Superhydrophilic- Hydrophobic Hybrid Vertical Surface[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2018, 54(10): 182-187.
[11] WANG X L, HASSAN A, BOUDAOUD H, et al.A Review on 3D Printing of Bioinspired Hydrophobic Materials: Oil-Water Separation, Water Harvesting, and Diverse Applications[J]. Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials, 2023, 6(5): 170.
[12] 李欣茹, 赵张驰, 薛洋, 等. 仿生超疏水多级结构表面设计及机理研究[J]. 表面技术, 2024, 53(22): 171-179.
LI X R, ZHAO Z C, XUE Y, et al.Design and Mechanism Study of Biomimetic Superhydrophobic Hierarchical Structure Surface[J]. Surface Technology, 2024, 53(22): 171-179.
[13] LU Y, SATHASIVAM S, SONG J L, et al.Robust Self-Cleaning Surfaces that Function when Exposed to either Air or Oil[J]. Science, 2015, 347(6226): 1132-1135.
[14] 汪希奎, 苏一凡, 程真, 等. 基于多孔黏结层的超疏水复合涂层制备及其耐磨性研究[J]. 表面技术, 2023, 52(11): 63-71.
WANG X K, SU Y F, CHENG Z, et al.Fabrication and Wear Resistance of Robust Superhydrophobic Composite Coating Based on Porous Adhesive Layer[J]. Surface Technology, 2023, 52(11): 63-71.
[15] GE M Z, CAO C Y, LIANG F H, et al.A "PDMS-in- Water" Emulsion Enables Mechanochemically Robust Superhydrophobic Surfaces with Self-Healing Nature[J]. Nanoscale Horizons, 2020, 5(1): 65-73.
[16] 潘仕顺, 盛伟, 李志永, 等. 基于超疏水表面抑霜初期实验研究[J]. 表面技术, 2025, 54(14): 172-183.
PAN S S, SHENG W, LI Z Y, et al.Experimental Study on the Initial Stage of Frost Suppression Based on Superhydrophobic Surface[J]. Surface Technology, 2025, 54(14): 172-183.
[17] CHEN G, DAI Z Y, DING S, et al.Realization of Integrative Hierarchy by In-Situ Solidification of ‘Semi-Cured’ Microcilia Array in Candle Flame for Robust and Flexible Superhydrophobicity[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2022, 432: 134400.
[18] ABD AZIZ M H, OTHMAN M H D, TAVARES J R, et al. Self-Cleaning and Anti-Fouling Superhydrophobic Hierarchical Ceramic Surface Synthesized from Hydrothermal and Fluorination Methods[J]. Applied Surface Science, 2022, 598: 153702.
[19] 金杰, 熊李芳, 尹天晨, 等. TC4钛合金表面超疏水微弧氧化-水热-硅烷复合涂层构筑及耐蚀性研究[J]. 表面技术, 2025, 54(15): 189-199.
JIN J, XIONG L F, YIN T C, et al.Construction and Corrosion Resistance of Superhydrophobic Micro-Arc Oxidation-Hydrothermal-Silanization Composite Coatings on Surface of TC4 Titanium Alloy[J]. Surface Technology, 2025, 54(15): 189-199.
[20] LI S H, PAGE K, SATHASIVAM S, et al.Efficiently Texturing Hierarchical Superhydrophobic Fluoride-Free Translucent Films by AACVD with Excellent Durability and Self-Cleaning Ability[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 2018, 6(36): 17633-17641.
[21] 卢硕, 沈士泰, 张小雨, 等. 铝表面超疏水复合涂层的制备及其表面性能[J]. 表面技术, 2023, 52(11): 318-325.
LU S, SHEN S T, ZHANG X Y, et al.Preparation and Properties of Superhydrophobic Coatings on Aluminum[J]. Surface Technology, 2023, 52(11): 318-325.
[22] ALLIONE M, LIMONGI T, MARINI M, et al.Micro/ Nanopatterned Superhydrophobic Surfaces Fabrication for Biomolecules and Biomaterials Manipulation and Analysis[J]. Micromachines, 2021, 12(12): 1501.
[23] 王华, 刘艳艳. 镁合金表面防腐蚀超疏水涂层制备研究进展[J]. 表面技术, 2023, 52(11): 1-22.
WANG H, LIU Y Y.Research Progress in the Preparation of Anti-Corrosion Superhydrophobic Coatings on Magnesium Alloys[J]. Surface Technology, 2023, 52(11): 1-22.
[24] LIU M N, LI M T, XU S, et al.Bioinspired Superhydrophobic Surfaces via Laser-Structuring[J]. Frontiers in Chemistry, 2020, 8: 835.
[25] 孙诗成, 张朝阳, 吴予澄, 等. 激光电沉积复合制备定域微纳结构及其超疏水性能研究[J]. 表面技术, 2024, 53(13): 64-74.
SUN S C, ZHANG Z Y, WU Y C, et al.Fixed Area Preparation and Superhydrophobic Properties of Micro- Nano Structures by Laser Electrodeposition Composite Process[J]. Surface Technology, 2024, 53(13): 64-74.
[26] CHAKRABORTY A, MULRONEY A T, GUPTA M C.Superhydrophobic Surfaces by Microtexturing: A Critical Review[M]//Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives. 2021: 621-649.
[27] 林芳, 师文庆, 范村莹, 等. 基于微纳结构与表面能调控的镁合金表面超疏水形成机理研究[J]. 表面技术: 1-22.
LIN F, SHI W Q, FAN C Y, Research on the Formation Mechanism of Superhydrophobicity on the Surface of Magnesium Alloys Based on the Regulation of Micro-nano Structures and Surface Energy[J], Surface Technology, 1-22.
[28] 曹祥康, 孙晓光, 蔡光义, 等. 耐久型超疏水表面: 理论模型、制备策略和评价方法[J]. 化学进展, 2021, 33(9): 1525-1537.
CAO X K, SUN X G, CAI G Y, et al.Durable Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Theoretical Models, Preparation Strategies, and Evaluation Methods[J]. Progress in Chemistry, 2021, 33(9): 1525-1537.
[29] 任猛, 李永升, 胡歆, 等. 超疏水纳米复合涂层表面机械稳定性研究进展[J]. 塑料工业, 2019, 47(3): 8-13.
REN M, LI Y S, HU X, et al.Research Progress on Mechanical Stability of Super Hydrophobic Nanocomposite Coatings[J]. China Plastics Industry, 2019, 47(3): 8-13.
[30] SIMPSON J T, HUNTER S R, AYTUG T.Superhydrophobic Materials and Coatings: A Review[J]. Reports on Progress in Physics Physical Society, 2015, 78(8): 086501.
[31] 黄金华, 程静, 孙文文, 等. 3D打印技术在超疏水材料制备中的研究进展[J]. 塑料工业, 2023, 51(9): 14-21.
HUANG J H, CHENG J, SUN W W, et al.Research Progress in Preparation of Superhydrophobic Materials by 3D Printing[J]. China Plastics Industry, 2023, 51(9): 14-21.
[32] FAN H F, GUO Z G.Bioinspired Surfaces with Wettability: Biomolecule Adhesion Behaviors[J]. Biomaterials Science, 2020, 8(6): 1502-1535.
[33] LI D W, WANG H Y, LIU Y, et al.Large-Scale Fabrication of Durable and Robust Super-Hydrophobic Spray Coatings with Excellent Repairable and Anti- Corrosion Performance[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2019, 367: 169-179.
[34] 梁洁, 姜瑞丰, 邵虹, 等. 3D打印技术制备超润湿油水分离材料进展[J]. 塑料工业, 2022, 50(5): 62-68.
LIANG J, JIANG R F, SHAO H, et al.Advances in Preparation Super-Wetting Oil-Water Separation Materials by 3D Printing[J]. China Plastics Industry, 2022, 50(5): 62-68.
[35] 唐昆, 李典雨, 陈紫琳, 等. 3D打印制备各向异性超疏水功能表面的定向输送性能[J]. 表面技术, 2020, 49(9): 157-166.
TANG K, LI D Y, CHEN Z L, et al.Directional Transport Properties of Anisotropic Superhydrophobic Functional Surfaces Prepared by 3D Printing[J]. Surface Technology, 2020, 49(9): 157-166.
[36] WANG S T, LIU K S, YAO X, et al.Bioinspired Surfaces with Superwettability: New Insight on Theory, Design, and Applications[J]. Chemical Reviews, 2015, 115(16): 8230-8293.
[37] 汤勇, 周明, 韩志武, 等. 表面功能结构制造研究进展[J]. 机械工程学报, 2010, 46(23): 93-105.
TANG Y, ZHOU M, HAN Z W, et al.Recent Research on Manufacturing Technologies of Functional Surface Structure[J]. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2010, 46(23): 93-105.
[38] YOUNG T. III. an Essay on the Cohesion of Fluids[J]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1805, 95: 65-87.
[39] WENZEL R N.Resistance of Solid Surfaces to Wetting by Water[J]. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, 1936, 28(8): 988-994.
[40] CASSIE A B D, BAXTER S. Wettability of Porous Surfaces[J]. Transactions of the Faraday Society, 1944, 40: 546.
[41] JU J, ZHENG Y M, JIANG L.Bioinspired One- Dimensional Materials for Directional Liquid Transport[J]. Accounts of Chemical Research, 2014, 47(8): 2342-2352.
[42] SHERIN T, MOTAPOTHULA M R, DALAPATI G K, et al.A Comprehensive Review on Realization of Self- Cleaning Surfaces by Additive Manufacturing[J]. Progress in Additive Manufacturing, 2025, 10(4): 1785-1808.
[43] YAN C Y, JIANG P, JIA X, et al.3D Printing of Bioinspired Textured Surfaces with Superamphiphobicity[J]. Nanoscale, 2020, 12(5): 2924-2938.
[44] BARTKOWIAK T, PETA K, KRÓLCZYK J B, et al. Wetting Properties of Polymer Additively Manufactured Surfaces - Multiscale and Multi-Technique Study into the Surface-Measurement-Function Interactions[J]. Tribology International, 2025, 202: 110394.
[45] CHAND R, SHARMA V S, TREHAN R, et al.Developing Superhydrophobic Surface Using Multi Jet 3D Printing Durability Analysis[J]. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2023, 32(3): 1133-1144.
[46] HORNIK T, KEMPA J, CATTERLIN J, et al.A Qualitative Experimental Proof of Principle of Self- Assembly in 3D Printed Microchannels towards Embedded Wiring in Biofuel Cells[J]. Micromachines, 2023, 14(4): 807.
[47] LI W, ZHANG J, LIAO J C, et al.A Novel Hand-Held Spinning Platform with Centrifugal Microfluidics for Rapid, Cost-Effective Urinary Total Protein Detection at the Point of Care[J]. Analytical Chemistry, 2025, 97(28): 15049-15059.
[48] BIRTEK M T, ATCEKEN N, TASOGLU S.Programmable 3DP Microfluidic Bio-Reaction System: Automated LAMP-on-a-Chip[J]. Lab on a Chip, 2025, 25(21): 5506-5523.
[49] CHENG T Y, LIAO Y C.Enhancing Drop Mixing in Powder Bed by Alternative Particle Arrangements with Contradictory Hydrophilicity[J]. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2022, 131: 104160.
[50] KALMAN J, CORTES A, TIAN F Y.Surface Modification Effects on Ammonium Perchlorate Wettability[J]. Applied Surface Science, 2024, 678: 161108.
[51] GUO Y G, LUO B P, WANG X C, et al.Wettability Control and Oil/Water Separation Performance of 3D-Printed Porous Materials[J]. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2022, 139(5): 51570.
[52] HAN S H, SUNG J, SO H.Simple Fabrication of Water Harvesting Surfaces Using Three-Dimensional Printing Technology[J]. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology, 2021, 8(5): 1449-1459.
[53] CHOI Y, BAEK K, SO H.3D-Printing-Assisted Fabrication of Hierarchically Structured Biomimetic Surfaces with Dual-Wettability for Water Harvesting[J]. Scientific Reports, 2023, 13(1): 10691.
[54] CHAULE S, HWANG J, HA S J, et al.Rational Design of a High Performance and Robust Solar Evaporator via 3D-Printing Technology[J]. Advanced Materials, 2021, 33(38): 2102649.
[55] KONIECZNA R, PRZEKOP R E, PAKUŁA D, et al. Functional Silsesquioxanes-Tailoring Hydrophobicity and Anti-Ice Properties of Polylactide in 3D Printing Applications[J]. Materials, 2024, 17(19): 4850.
[56] JOSEPH B, NINAN N, VISALAKSHAN R M, et al.Insights into the Biomechanical Properties of Plasma Treated 3D Printed PCL Scaffolds Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles[J]. Composites Science and Technology, 2021, 202: 108544.
[57] JEONG S, GU B, CHOI S, et al.Engineered Multi-Scale Roughness of Carbon Nanofiller-Embedded 3D Printed Spacers for Membrane Distillation[J]. Water Research, 2023, 231: 119649.
[58] NAVEED N, DUTTA K, BALAMURUGAN D, et al.Oil-Incorporated Poly(lactic acid) as an Alternative Material for Orthodontic Base Plate: A 3D Printing Approach[J]. Advances in Polymer Technology, 2022, 2022(1): 7448575.
[59] MARTÍNEZ-GARCÍA P, REBOLLAR E, NOGALES A, et al. 3D Printing-Assisted Nanoimprint Lithography of Polymers[J]. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2023, 25(17): 2300344.
[60] WANG X L, AN J J, HASSAN A, et al.Simplified 3D Printing Method for Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Oil-Water Separation Membrane with Controllable Pore Size[J]. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2025, 142(30): e57217.
[61] HUANG F, ZHANG Y X, GONG M, et al.3D Printing of Soft Materials with Superhydrophobicity and Programmable Anisotropic Wettability[J]. Surfaces and Interfaces, 2024, 46: 103953.
[62] CHOI H H, KIM E H, KIM B G, et al.Improvement of Ceramic Core Strength by Combining 3D Printing Technology and an Organic-Inorganic Conversion Process Using Dual Polymers[J]. Ceramics International, 2021, 47(12): 17644-17651.
[63] JONHSON W, XU X, BIAN K, et al.3D-Printed Hierarchical Ceramic Architectures for Ultrafast Emulsion Treatment and Simultaneous Oil-Water Filtration[J]. ACS Materials Letters, 2022, 4(4): 740-750.
[64] XU B, HU X N, LU S Y, et al.3D Printing of Cellulose Nanocrystal-Based Pickering Foams for Removing Microplastics[J]. Separation and Purification Technology, 2024, 339: 126642.
[65] DU L, XU Y, XU H Z, et al.Highly Directional Water Transport Membrane Made from a Hybrid Manufacturing Approach: Unleashing the Power of Melt Electrowriting[J]. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 2022, 641: 128486.
[66] LI N, SHAO K, HE J T, et al.Solar-Powered Interfacial Evaporation and Deicing Based on a 3D-Printed Multiscale Hierarchical Design[J]. Small, 2023, 19(33): 2301474.
[67] ZHU T Y, REN Z Y, WANG D B, et al.Reactive 3D Printed Silanized Cellulose Nanofiber Aerogels for Solar-Thermal Regulatory Cooling[J]. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2025, 192: 108761.
[68] BAILEY C M, MORROW J A, STALLBAUMER-CYR E M, et al. Effects of Build Angle on Additively Manufactured Aluminum Alloy Surface Roughness and Wettability[J]. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 2022, 144(8): 081010.
[69] KOH H K, MOO J G S, SING S L, et al. Use of Fumed Silica Nanostructured Additives in Selective Laser Melting and Fabrication of Steel Matrix Nanocomposites[J]. Materials, 2022, 15(5): 1869.
[70] KIM J, CHUN D M, PARK H W, et al.Waterproof and Wear-Resistant Surface Treatment on Printed Parts of Polyamide 12 (PA12) by Selective Laser Sintering Using a Large Pulsed Electron Beam[J]. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Green Technology, 2023, 10(1): 71-83.
[71] KAN L X, ZHANG L, WANG P F, et al.Robust Superhydrophobicity through Surface Defects from Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing[J]. Biomimetics, 2023, 8(8): 598.
[72] MECHALI A, HLINKA J, KRESTA M, et al.Effect of Powder Recycling on the Surface and Selected Technological Properties of M300 Maraging Steel Produced via the SLM Method[J]. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 2024, 8(6): 267.
[73] MEKHIEL S, KOSHY P, ELBESTAWI M A.Additive Texturing of Metallic Surfaces for Wetting Control[J]. Additive Manufacturing, 2021, 37: 101631.
[74] MINGIONE E, SALVI D, ALMONTI D, et al.Improvement of Thermal, Electrical, and Tribological Performances of GNPS Composites Produced by Selective Laser Sintering[J]. Polymer Composites, 2025, 46(9): 7924-7938.
[75] RICHERT M, DUDEK M, SALA D.Surface Quality as a Factor Affecting the Functionality of Products Manufactured with Metal and 3D Printing Technologies[J]. Materials, 2024, 17(21): 5371.
[76] LI G Y, FERDOUSI S, TEJEDA-GODINEZ G, et al.3D-Printed Self-Cleaning Structured Surfaces through Capillary Force[J]. MRS Communications, 2022, 12(5): 982-987.
[77] WU C J, WEI X Y, CHEN Y T, et al.Surface Wettability Analysis and Preparation of Hydrophobic Microcylindrical Arrays by Μ-SLA 3D Printing[J]. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2022, 83: 14-26.
[78] LI X J, YANG Y, LIU L Y, et al.3D-Printed Cactus-Inspired Spine Structures for Highly Efficient Water Collection[J]. Advanced Materials Interfaces, 2020, 7(3): 1901752.
[79] PENG L H, CHEN K Q, CHEN D Y, et al.Study on the Enhancing Water Collection Efficiency of Cactus- and Beetle-Like Biomimetic Structure Using UV-Induced Controllable Diffusion Method and 3D Printing Technology[J]. RSC Advances, 2021, 11(24): 14769-14776.
[80] YANG Y, LI X J, ZHENG X, et al.3D-Printed Biomimetic Super-Hydrophobic Structure for Microdroplet Manipulation and Oil/Water Separation[J]. Advanced Materials, 2018, 30(9): 1704912.
[81] LOU Y, YU Q K, YU J T, et al.Fabrication of Hydrophobic Zirconia Ceramic Mould Inserts through the Integration of Self-Assembled Monolayer Modification and Stereolithography 3D Printing Technology[J]. Ceramics International, 2025, 51(9): 11121-11135.
[82] ALDHALEAI A, TSAI P A.Fabrication of Transparent and Microstructured Superhydrophobic Substrates Using Additive Manufacturing[J]. Langmuir, 2021, 37(1): 348-356.
[83] HUANG G, GUO H L, TANG Z F, et al.Tough Hydrophobic Hydrogels for Monitoring Human Moderate Motions in both Air and Underwater Environments[J]. Chemistry of Materials, 2023, 35(15): 5953-5962.
[84] GUAN Z H, TANG Z R, YAO Z T, et al."Rigid-Flexible" Strategy Realizes Robust Ultralong Phosphorescence for Multifunctional Display Unit and Photoreceptor Synapse[J]. Advanced Materials, 2025, 37(41): e07192.
[85] BACHA T W, MANUGUERRA D C, MARANO R A, et al.Hydrophilic Modification of SLA 3D Printed Droplet Generators by Photochemical Grafting[J]. RSC Advances, 2021, 11(35): 21745-21753.
[86] WARR C A, HINNEN H S, AVERY S, et al.3D-Printed Microfluidic Droplet Generator with Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Polymers[J]. Micromachines, 2021, 12(1): 91.
[87] CATTERTON M A, MONTALBINE A N, POMPANO R R.Selective Fluorination of the Surface of Polymeric Materials after Stereolithography 3D Printing[J]. Langmuir, 2021, 37(24): 7341-7348.
[88] DONG Z Q, VUCKOVAC M, CUI W J, et al.3D Printing of Superhydrophobic Objects with Bulk Nanostructure[J]. Advanced Materials, 2021, 33(45): 2106068.
[89] DENG W J, LIU Y, RUI Y Y, et al.Construction of Superhydrophobic Surfaces via Dual-Scale Modified Particles and Digital Light Processing 3D Printing Techniques[J]. Progress in Organic Coatings, 2023, 181: 107570.
[90] JANG S, JEONG Y, SHIN H, et al.Digital Light Processing Technique Aided 3D Printing Hierarchical Super-Wetting Mesh Coated with Hydrophobic SiO₂ for Highly Efficient Oil-Water Separation[J]. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2024, 134: 583-591.
[91] LEE W H, HADDLETON D. Digital Light Processing (DLP) 3D Printing Fabrication of Hydrophobic Meshes Incorporating Fluorinated and Silicone-Based Acrylates Combined with Surface Engineering: Comparison of Their Oil-Water Separation Efficiency[J]. ACS Omega, 2024, 9(50): 49463-49469.
[92] DANIELAK A, KO J, ISLAM A, et al.Hydrophobic Surface for Direct PEGDA Micro-Pattern Fabrication[J]. Micro and Nano Systems Letters, 2023, 11(1): 4.
[93] BUNEA A I, SZCZOTKA N, NAVNE J, et al.Single-Step Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Surfaces by Two-Photon Polymerization Micro 3D Printing[J]. Micro and Nano Engineering, 2023, 19: 100192.
[94] HOU Y Z, BAI K L, ZHONG S H, et al.Swimming Performance Enhancement of the Magnetic Helical Microrobots Based on Surface Microstructure Modification[J]. IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters, 2025, 10(6): 5729-5736.
[95] YIN Q, GUO Q, WANG Z L, et al.3D-Printed Bioinspired Cassie-Baxter Wettability for Controllable Microdroplet Manipulation[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2021, 13(1): 1979-1987.
[96] LIU Y, ZHANG H, WANG P, et al.3D-Printed Bionic Superhydrophobic Surface with Petal-Like Microstructures for Droplet Manipulation, Oil-Water Separation, and Drag Reduction[J]. Materials & Design, 2022, 219: 110765.
[97] LI T, WANG S Z, WENG Z K, et al.Laser Interference Additive Manufacturing: Mask Bundle Shape Bionic Shark Skin Structure[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2024, 16(28): 37183-37196.

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China (52175455); Liaoning Natural Science Foundation (2023-MSBA-006); Central Universities' Fundamental Research Funds for Disciplines (DUT24MS006)